【中文摘要】:无罪推定是资产阶级革命胜利后在否定中世纪纠问式诉讼制度的基础上形成并发展起来的,其核心在于保障人权,促进法官公平审判,现已成为一项重要的国际司法准则。司法中由无罪推定原则又衍生出了疑罪从无规则、控方举证责任承担规则、沉默权规则、非法证据排除规则这四种司法规则来保障实施。目前我国立法一方面贯彻了无罪推定原则,明确规定由法院来行使审判权确定被告人是否有罪,并在其判决前,不得将任何人当作犯罪人来对待,对犯罪嫌疑人、被告人的合法权益有了明确的规定来保障,且对疑罪从无有比较明确和详细的规定,但另一方面又没有彻底贯彻该原则,主要体现在没有赋予犯罪嫌疑人、被告人沉默权,人民法院的确立有罪权受到侵犯,没有彻底禁止非法收集的证据的运用,为了完善我国的无罪推定原则,应当确定无罪推定原则的宪法地位,调整刑事诉讼法中与无罪推定原则不相符的条款:犯罪嫌疑人应当享有沉默权、健全证据使用规则、进一步明确疑罪从无的处理规则。
【中文关键词】:无罪推定、疑罪从无、举证责任、沉默权、非法证据
【引言】 我国新《刑事诉讼法》第12条规定:“未经人民法院依法判决,对任何人都不得确定有罪”。然而在我国大大小小得公安机关的审讯室里,最醒目得莫过于墙上的那八个大字“坦白从宽,抗拒从严”。这是对接受审讯的犯罪嫌疑人的一种警示,让他们坦白,不要抗拒。坦白,坦白什么?抗拒,什么是抗拒?这里毫无疑问已将他们看作是有罪之人,让他们自己证明自己可能有可能无得罪行。既然法律已明文规定未经法院判决,任何人都不得确认有罪,则此刻的犯罪嫌疑人没有充足的证据可以证明,即推定为其无罪,那为什么仍然要让接受审讯人自己交代“罪行”呢?有什么罪行可以交代?
一、无罪推定的概述及其衍生规则
《牛津法律大辞典》将无罪推定定义为:“普通法国家刑法的一项基本原则,大一是被指控的人必须被推定为无罪,知道或除非他本人承认或有无可怀疑的充足证据证明相反时为止。”[1]即任何人在未经证实和判决有罪之前,应视其为无罪。它强调的是对犯罪嫌疑人、被告人所指控的罪行,必须要有充分、确凿、有效的证据,如果审判中不能证明其有罪,就应推定其无罪。
(一)无罪推定的历史发展
从无罪推定原则的产生来看,它起源于古罗马诉讼中的“有疑,为被告人利益”的原则,十八世纪,意大利启蒙思想家贝卡里亚在《论犯罪与刑罚》中最早从理论上提出无罪推定思想,他在1764年所著的《论犯罪与刑罚》中指出:“在法官判决之前,一个人是不能被称为罪犯的。只要还不能断定他已经侵犯了给予他公共保护的契约,社会就不能取消对他的公共保护”;“如果犯罪是不肯定的,就不应折磨一个无辜者,因为在法律看来,他的罪行并没有得到证实”。[2]从无罪推定的历史发展来看,它是作为封建社会有罪推定和刑讯逼供的对立产物,是资产阶级革命胜利以后在否定中世纪纠问式诉讼制度的及穿上形成并发展起来的一项法律原则。现已成为世界各国普遍承认的刑法和刑事诉讼原则。
(二)无罪推定的具体内容
无罪推定的提出至今已经发展了200多年,根据贝卡里亚的思想和表述,结合现今的法律发展实情,无罪推定包含以下三方面的基本内容:
1、有且只有法院有权依法判定犯罪嫌疑人、被告人是否有罪。
其他任何机关个人,包括侦查机关、控诉机关等都无权对犯罪嫌疑人、被告人的市委作是否有罪的评判,他们所作的一切诉讼行为诸如侦查羁押等,都只是为了更好地查清案件事实,为了最大限度地还原案件的事实状态,但无权对案件事实或者说是法律事实给予定论,只有法院在经过合法、公正、有效的审判程序后,才能依法判定犯罪嫌疑人、被告人是否有罪。
2、在法院判定犯罪嫌疑人、被告人有罪前,其不应被认定有罪。
犯罪嫌疑人、被告人在被法院宣判为犯罪人前,都只是作为一个与其他诉讼主体地位无异的普通诉讼主体参与到侦查、诉讼中,和其他诉讼主体一样享有相应的诉讼权利,承担相应的诉讼义务。他们参与到诉讼中的目的应当是以协助弄清事实真相为基础的,而非调查其是否真的有罪。侦查机关、检察机关和法院在诉讼程序进行过程中,应当先入为主地认定犯罪嫌疑人、被告人是无罪的。
3、举证责任由控诉方承担。
控诉被告人犯罪的机关或个人应当承担证明被告人被指控犯罪的事实之责任。[3]其内容包括:一是提供证据证明被告人有罪的责任由控诉方承担;二是履行证明责任的控诉方的证明必须达到案件事实清楚、证据确实充分,或者达到“没有合理疑点”的程度从而推翻原来的无罪推定,使人不得不相信被告人的有罪事实,否则,由控诉方来承担败诉的风险;三是犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有义务和责任来证明自己无罪,不能因为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有证明自己无罪而认为其有罪。即只要不能完全证明犯罪嫌疑人、被告人有罪,则其就是无罪的。
(三)无罪推定原则的衍生规则
由于无罪推定原则比较抽象,且其主要体现出的是一种立法、司法精神,即我们司法应以保障当事人的合法权益为出发点,但在实际的司法运用中还需要些具体的规则来将这一司法原则的精神或者是司法的价值标准具体地体现出来。一方面,在立法上需要将当事人的权益明文规定出来,使其权益明确得到法律上的肯定和保护。另一方面,在司法实践过程中,也需要一系列的具体规则来“迫使”国家侦查机关、检察机关等对当事人的合法权益予以尊重和保护,避免国家公权力的滥用而对犯罪嫌疑人、被告人的合法权益造成伤害。具体来说,需要衍生出以下四种规则:
1、沉默权规则
即犯罪嫌疑人、被告人在刑事诉讼过程中享有沉默权。从公安机关侦查直至法院审判完毕,均有权保持沉默,不说话或者随时停止说话,且其不会因为不说话或者停止说话而遭受惩罚或者更重的指控或刑罚。[1]因为既然前提是已经推定为犯罪嫌疑人、被告人无罪,则犯罪嫌疑人、被告人无需发言来坦陈自己的清白或交代自己的“罪行”。这样明确规定犯罪嫌疑人、被告人享有沉默权,是无罪推定在刑事诉讼司法过程中的具体运用与体现,能切实地保障犯罪嫌疑人、被告人的人身权益。
2、控方举证责任规则
即在刑事诉讼中由控诉方承担证明犯罪嫌疑人、被告人无罪的举证责任,犯罪嫌疑人、被告人没有承担证明自己无罪的责任。简单地说即控诉方若不能完全证明犯罪嫌疑人、被告人有罪,则其为无罪。因为既然在法院最终判定被告人有罪前,犯罪嫌疑人、被告人均被认为是无罪的,则侦查机关的侦查行为都只是为了弄清案件事实,而非因为犯罪嫌疑人有罪而去侦查,控诉机关控诉我们先入为主地认为是无罪的犯罪嫌疑人、被告人有罪,则当然需要拿出证据来证明。而其他人,特别是被控诉人自己没有义务去证明其有罪,或者是为自己的无罪作辩解。这样很好地体现了无罪推定原则,是其在司法中很好的运用,即用具体的规则来限制司法工作人员,明确规定了他们的义务与责任 ,保障了当事人的合法权益。
3、非法证据排除规则
即控诉机关提出的证据若是在形式、内容或者其收集的方式、程序上违反了法律的规定,则该证据不能被采用,从而不能作为法院定罪量刑的依据。这样做可以避免侦查机关、控诉机关在查明案件事实、指控犯罪嫌疑人或被告人的过程中出于其高度的政治责任感和职业责任感而基于弄清案件事实或者尽早结案而采取一些侵犯当事人的合法权益,违反法律规定的方式、手段来获得证据,也为了保证犯罪嫌疑人、被告人所遭受的指控都是建立在合法证据的证明上的,从而在程序、方式上给予犯罪嫌疑人、被告人具体的权益保障,使司法的正义是建立在透明的程序与合法的证据上的,让人完全信服法院的判决,体现出了司法的权威性。
4、疑罪从无规则
指对案件的指控还存在一点,没有完全排除合理怀疑,使人达不到内心完全确认的情况下,则在判决结果上认定被告人无罪。[2]这样可以避免冤枉一部人可能并没有实施犯罪行为的被告人。在面对疑案时,是选择错判还是错放,是设计到司法公正的价值取向问题,而现代司法公正追求的是个体公正,司法活动应当围绕个体个案进行,可能错案率对司法机关来说只是千分之几,很小很小的一个比例,但对被冤枉被错判的当事人来说就是百分百了,按疑罪从无的规则,必然会放纵一部分真正的罪犯,但这样可以避免冤枉任何一个好人,这就是无罪推定原则的核心价值体系,不侵犯任何公民的合法权益。这样可以保障被告人的人身权益受到合理保护,使公民不可能因为自己并没有做过的事情而受到刑罚,另一方面也给疑案的处理明确了一个标准,即在判决结果上应以无罪论处,解决了法院在碰到疑案时定不了也否不了而无所适从的尴尬局面,提高了司法的办案效率。
西藏自治区关于发展对邻国贸易的暂行规定(附英文)
西藏
西藏自治区关于发展对邻国贸易的暂行规定(附英文)
1987年3月24日,西藏
规定
第 一 条
为进一步发展本区同邻国的贸易,活跃经济,加强管理,特制定本规定。
第 二 条
本规定适用于本区经营对邻国进出口贸易的国营企业、集体企业和个体工商户(以下简称进出口商)和在本区有长期居住权的邻国侨民(以下简称外侨进出口商)。
第 三 条
经西藏自治区对外经济贸易厅(以下简称区对外经贸厅)批准,并向工商行政管理部门登记领取经营进出口贸易营业执照的本区国营企业、集体企业和个体工商户,可以在批准的经营范围内开展对邻国的进出口贸易。
经自治区外侨管理部门审核同意,报区对外经贸厅批准,并向工商行政管理部门登记领取经营进出口贸易营业执照的在本区有长期居住权的邻国侨民,可以经营对邻国的进出口贸易。
第 四 条
进出口商、外侨进出口商应持有关批准文件和营业执照,到海关办理注册登记手续,领取报关员证件,凭以报关。
第 五 条
对邻国的进出口的贸易,按照自找贷源、自找销路、自行谈判、自行平衡、自负盈亏的原则,采取易货方式和结汇方式进行。
第 六 条
本区对邻国贸易进口货物和出口货物各分三类进行管理:
凡属于实行进、出口许可证管理的货物,各进出口商、外侨进出口商按年度进出口计划,事先向对外经济贸易部授权的区对外经贸厅审领进口或出口许可证。海关凭许可证验放。
凡不属于实行进、出口许可证管理的货物,由各进出口商、外侨进出口商在经自治区人民政府批准的年度计划内经营,海关凭有权经营对邻国进出口贸易的进出口商、外侨进出口商填写的进出口货物报关单和有关单证验放。
凡属禁止进口和禁止出口的货物,进出口商、外侨进出口商都不得经营。
第 七 条
经营对邻国贸易的进出口商、外侨进出口商的经营活动都必须接受区对外经贸厅的计划、统计、价格等管理;在区内市场的经营活动必须接受工商行政管理等有关部门的管理,照章纳税,不得违法经营。
第 八 条
经营对邻国贸易的进出口商、外侨进出口商应遵守国家有关外汇管理的规定。
第 九 条
经营对邻国贸易的进出口贸易必须经由指定的开放口岸进出,接受海关、边防、商检、卫生检疫、动植物检验等部门的检查检验,并照章缴纳关税、工商税、个人收入调节税和检验费。
第 十 条
凡从邻国进口的商品,一般不准销往区外。如遇特殊情况,必须销往区外的,应向区对外经贸厅申请批准,领取准运证,凭准运证运往区外。并按国家税法规定补交进口关税和进口环节产品税(或增值税)。
第十一条
进出口商、外侨进出口商到邻国进行贸易活动,必须按有关规定办理出国手续。
第十二条
经营对邻国的进出口贸易必须遵守国家法律和法规,违者由有关部门视情节轻重,依法处理。
第十三条
本规定不适用于其他省、自治区、直辖市有进出口经营权的国营企业通过西藏口岸或者委托本区国营企业进行的对邻国的贸易。
第十四条
邻国商人经本区经贸部门邀请,可以到本区对外开放城镇与本区进出口商洽谈贸易,但不得直接收购出口商品和零售进口商品。
第十五条
本规定的实施细则,由区对外经贸厅负责制订。
第十六条
本规定不适用于边民互市贸易。
第十七条
本规定自发布之日起施行。
INTERIM PROVISIONS OF THE TIBET AUTONOMOUS REGION CONCERNING THEPROMOTION OF TRADE WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES
Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法规全文)
INTERIM PROVISIONS OF THE TIBET AUTONOMOUS REGION CONCERNING THE
PROMOTION OF TRADE WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES
(Approved by the State Council on March 24, 1987 and promulgated
by the People's Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region)
Article 1
These Provisions are formulated to further develop trade between this
Region and neighbouring countries, to invigorate economy and improve
administration.
Article 2
These Provisions shall apply to the state-run enterprises, collective
enterprises, and individual industrial and commercial operators of this
Region that handle import and export business with neighbouring countries
(hereinafter referred to as "the importers and exporters"), and also apply
to nationals of neighbouring countries who have obtained the permanent
residence right in this Region (hereinafter referred to as "the foreign
resident importers and exporters").
Article 3
The state-run enterprises, collective enterprises and individual
industrial and commercial operators of this Region may carry on import and
export business, within the approved scope of business operation, with
neighbouring countries after they have obtained the approval from the
Department of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade of the Tibet Autonomous
Region (hereinafter referred to as "the Region Foreign Trade Department"),
and have gone through the procedures of registration with the
administrative department for industry and commerce and obtained the
business license for carrying on import and export business.
Foreign nationals of neighbouring countries with the permanent residence
right in this Region may carry on import and export business with
neighbouring countries after obtaining the consent from the Region's
administrative department for foreign nationals through verification, and
the approval from the Region Foreign Trade Department, as well as the
business license for carrying on import and export business by registering
with the administrative department for industry and commerce.
Article 4
The importers and exporters, and the foreign resident importers and
exporters, shall present the relevant approval documents and business
licenses to the Customs Office for registration and obtaining the
certificate for declarant, which shall be presented for making
declarations at the Customs Office.
Article 5
Import and export business with neighbouring countries shall be conducted
in accordance with the following principles: finding the sources of goods
and the markets by the importers and exporters themselves; holding
business talks of their own accord; acquiring balance of accounts in their
own ways; assuming sole responsibility for their gains and losses; and in
the forms of barter transaction and settlement of exchange.
Article 6
With respect to trade between this Region and neighbouring countries, the
imports and the exports fall respectively into three categories for
administration: With respect to the goods that fall under the
administration by import and export licenses, every importer and exporter,
or every foreign resident importer and exporter, shall, in accordance with
the annual import and export plan, make an application to the Region
Foreign Trade Department, which is authorized by the Ministry of Foreign
Economic Relations and Trade, for the import and export license. The
Customs Office shall give clearance after verifying the license.
With respect to the goods that do not fall under the administration by
import and export licenses, every importer and exporter, or every foreign
resident importer and exporter, shall carry out the business operations
within the annual plan approved by the Region People's Government. The
Customs Office shall give clearance after verifying the relevant vouchers
and documents, and the import and export goods Customs declaration forms
filled out by the importers and exporters, or by the foreign resident
importers and exporters, who have obtained the right to carry on import
and export trade with neighbouring countries.
With respect to those goods that are forbidden to import or export, the
importers and exporters, or the foreign resident importers and exporters,
may not transact them.
Article 7
The operational activities of the importers and exporters, or of the
foreign resident importers and exporters, who handle trade with
neighbouring countries, must be subject to the administration by the
Region Foreign Trade Department in such aspects as planning, statistics,
and pricing. The operational activities in the market within the Region
must be subject to the administration of such relevant departments as the
administrative department for industry and commerce, taxes must be paid
according to the regulations, and no illegal operational activities are
allowed.
Article 8
The importers and exporters, or the foreign resident importers and
exporters, who carry on trade with neighbouring countries, shall abide by
the pertinent provisions of the state on the control of foreign exchange.
Article 9
The imports and exports related to trade with neighbouring countries must
enter or exit at the designated opening ports, and be subject to the
examination and inspection by the Customs Office, the border inspection
station, the import and export commodities inspection agency, the public
health quarantine agency and the animals and plants quarantine agency, and
Customs duties, consolidated industrial and commercial tax, individual
income regulatory tax, and inspection fees must be paid according to the
regulations.
Article 10
All commodities imported from neighbouring countries are not permitted to
be sold outside this Region. Under special circumstances, when imported
commodities are absolutely necessary to be sold outside this Region, the
cases must be submitted to the Region Foreign Trade Department for
approval and obtaining the transport permit; with this transport permit
the said imported commodities are permitted to be carried beyond this
Region. The Customs duties on these imported goods as well as the import
related product tax (or added value tax) shall be paid according to the
tax laws of the State.
Article 11
The importers and exporters, or the foreign resident importers and
exporters that go to the neighbouring countries for trade activities must
go through the procedures for going abroad according to the pertinent
provisions.
Article 12
Persons who handle import and export business with neighbouring countries
must abide by the laws, regulations and rules of the State; offenders
shall be dealt with according to law, depending on the seriousness of
their cases.
Article 13
These Provisions shall not apply to the state-run enterprises of other
provinces, autonomous regions, or municipalities directly under the
Central Government, that have a right to handle import and export business
and conduct trade with neighbouring countries through the ports in Tibet
or through the agencies of the state-run enterprises of this Region.
Article 14
Businessmen from neighbouring countries may, at the invitation of the
departments of foreign economic relations and trade in this Region, come
to the open towns of this Region to hold business talks with the importers
and exporters of this Region, but they may not purchase the export
commodities and retail the imported commodities directly.
Article 15
The rules for the implementation of these Provisions shall be formulated
by the Region Foreign Trade Department.
Article 16
These Provisions shall not apply to the mutual market trade between the
border inhabitants.
Article 17
These Provisions shall go into effect as of the date of promulgation.